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a close partnershibJ between public and private sectors isessen-tial for wise tourism development.Sec JtHJly,it ls 11oteu that touris111 resources are by theirnature geographically. dif:fuse. Thus impacts are spread more lha!lfor other development alternatives.mayCertain parts of acountrybe more generously endowed with 'tourism' resources and as aresult by pa.r:ticula.tly at.Li.activewhilethereloirnJuslry.LlieHowever,may be ouvious advanta9es [or economic distributiont a k i n y s I! e 11 d i n y l. u LI I l r e y i o n s ' L Ii e s e a r e a s Illa y n o l Ii a v e t Ii einfrastructure or community resources Lo support growth intourist demand.i n'Finally,tourism r:esources cot1stitule a wide mix u naturaland socio-culturalobvious,e.g.te::.HJUll , ;.WhilernounLain scenery, 30111eofbeaches,perhaps not so obvious - cultural events,l:hese are relativelywildlife, others arethe 'way ofli[e'ofthe people, an l politlce1l and ecouomic stability.'Group u[ ExpertsThe OECD(1980) remind us that environmentalonEnvironment and Tourism'changesarecharacteristi-cally of a long-term nature (while tlte market usually has a relativelyshort term view) a11tl that the market place cannul measurethe multitude ofquality."Itispropriate talthe responsibility of governments al the a1: local,environmentisnational and international,to ensuremaintainedin a condition which cor-responds to the needs of the tourists,the local inhabitants andto national objectives" (OECD 1980:8).1.3A New ZealanJ Ex91t1pleExamplesofhowwe need to focus our planning bot:h on in-dustry and tourst experience (1: roduct:) re1Julrernents are7easyto

generate.Take, for exa.rnple, the question of: road sealing.Doesroads to llldke occess easier actually improve thesealingtourist's experie11ce?Presumably for re11tal vehicle companiesunsealed roads are a sour.ce of f:ruslraLion,crease maintenance a11 l cleaning cosls.tour i s tsmay a c t u a lJ yc; Ii o o 5e u n s ea l e cJOn.t o ad as they directly inthecontrarysumepr i ma r 11 y be ca use o the quality of Lhe exp rience it llld'.f lead to.Sealin9 sume roadsmay therefore sirnpJ y lead l:ourists to choose alternative unsealedroads as they seek a sl111llar quality of experie11ce.In this situation we have serious info.rmatio11Zealand.gapsinNewWe simply do not know how hirers of rental vehicles fr1general (and campervans in pa.rticulur) use Lite tuu.rism "p.roducl".Where do they go, stop, walk, shop, park . ?of their tourist experience?What is the natureSuch inio.rmalion is seen as essen-tial especially when Lids sector is growin9 so .Cast.We need to ask ourselves why do visitors come to New Zealandrather·thanother destinations?What really is the product wear:e packaging, promoting and selling?lrnd inally,what factorswill bring detrimental changes to this product.I n t er. ms of LIi -! 4 t If- .; L j o 11 wIi a tl s l he Luu r is t pro u u c::: t?is always reticent to of fer simple statements toissues."Inanswer- onecomplexThe following quute, however, p.r:ovides a useful summary:essenceitisthevery life and fabric of a countrywhich for.ms its tourist resources".(Mawhinney/Bagnall, ECE Study 1975:164)8

1.4The New Zealand Tourism Pr:oducLConsiderable support for the above notionbasedtour ismproductlsoIaculturallyfound ln research 111Lo tour l::.ts' ex-pe.r iences in New Zeulam].A.Visitor Percewti.t. 11Henshall i t al ( 1981) illustrateNewZealandbywayoIavisi lors'perceptionsofpilot "before" and "after" stutly o[visitors and note that visitor impressions are raised for:*the r e 1 a x i n J·kt lie uncrowded cu u 11 try*friendly people*safe country*unpolluted lanuscdpepact u( l i ewhile increased negative images were reportedservicing functionsnature of shopping.including entertainment,foranumberofand lhe expensiveIntended ActivitiesWhile it is not clear what faclors are important in converllng intentions into behaviour,arenonetheless important.of domestic and overseasvisitor preferences foractivityHenshall (1982) cites a pilot studyvisitors'holiday.9intentionsfortheirnext

Domestic ; YesOverseas'l Yes71565247692567Visit a National ParkVisit a MuseumGo TrampingVisit Arts and Cra(t Ce11tresVisit New Zealand family jntheir homeVisit Botanical GardensPllmmer7065684444(1985) has recently commented on the continued growth ofan 'inner directed'qualitative(astonr ist segment-· tl1osewhoseekauthenticopposed Lo quantitative) experiences.evidenced by the growth of the FIT (FreeIndependentThis isTraveller}segment in New Zealand.Information Sour.cesStudiesofinternationalvisitors to New Zealana identify"word of mouth" as the most important source offluencing a decision to visit (e.g.NZTP 1976,information1982).in-Henshallet al (1981) cited Lim's (1981) more detailed breakdown.Thesestudies may be summarised as:*70 per centPersonal communicationComprising 25-45 per cent of people whohad visited New Zealand20-40 per cent people living in NewZealand, business contacts, New Zealanderstravelling abroad.*17 per centAdvertisi119 materials*6-10 pe:r: ceutStudies and reading10

Thenature.ofin onnalim1thL:;ha: ; ;ystemt1number ofhavereturnedimplications.Firstly,the aLLlLudes of those peoplewhohome after touring this cou11try, and of New Zealanders overseas,are of pararnounl irnporl;;- rnce.IIensliall et al conclu .le Lhat themedia message should not contradict th1:. personally conveyed view,as the media message Jws d very much lower credibility than faceto face communication (1.981:?.9).A second implication is that the level of agreement.betweenvisitor's expectations and what acLually happens (or: is perceivedtohappen)is central Lo their salisfuclion.For tourism,what people hear and read of New Zealand does not matchwhat they experience,satisfaction willvisitors.a :::;atisfaction 't:Jdl ' edtotheupifwithTltis 'dis'-potentialnewdisastrous con-sequences this has had for: the Carribean.As avery simple elaboration of lhlsargumentifvisitorscoming to New Zealand were to perceive tltat public attitudes (andtowar:u them were different from their: expectationsbehaviour)(e.g.locals were perceived as less friendly,moreapathetic . ),tourists might become less satisfied with theirvisit.This in turn would be passed on to prospective tourists,in the longer term affecting industry growth.Because of a timelag in tourist decision making people who had saved, made plansand bookings might still visit hence exacerbating the developmentof negative attitudes in the short term.The development of suchattitudes may be modifled by opting for certain styles o[ tou:r:ismof other styles.response of increasingaheaddecline in visitatio11 . . .Getz (1983) has found that the industrypromotionalactivitytocounteracta"Could actually result in exacerbation11

of the problems which lead Lo visilor dissatisfaction" l J.249.He11Jl1 Jll el al (1981)Thus110Lc:"seekiny co111Jru.e11ce he!:weenandNewZeal :11Hh rsoversea ;visitors'expectationsown desires governing the acceptabilityof tourist e11cou11Lers is a cr.ucidl issue Lobedecidedbynat.ional debate" (IJ.i).Ll1erefore ·"WhattheNew Zealander wanls is surely al leasl as impoz:-Lant as what overseas tourists wa11L".(p.36).Who is Responsiule?1.5The type of social impacts we maytourismgrowthwillbearesultasaresultofdifferent in nature from those arisingfrom the gi:owth of other industries.notexpectThe major social impact isof the production t.ii:ocess but as a consequence ofthe fact that the consumer is brought to theproduct.Wearethus presented with a whole range of l?':!ople lo people impacts.·Thetourism product is essentially l:he country itselI,landscape, the cities, the weather and of experiences.Ain generating a clear public uriderstanuing of theimportance of tour ism to New Zealand.inthe people andtherefore accept sorne respon-sibility toward generating satisfyingprioritytheThe tour ism industry has,very little direct control over lhe most important in-formation source - word of mouth.Those involve aduitionaltourism must be planned and developed12

CHAPTER 2l\Clll\NGING TOURISM PRODUCTThe previous section has described tourism as auniquein-dustry in that it transports its consumers into the product.Thetourismitsproducthasbeen described as the country itself -natural and social resources - the land and the people.A second consequence·of this processlsproduct ls always changing and evolving.come more familiarthatthetourismThis happens as we be-in dealing with our guests andvisitorsmoreaware of what we have to offer.Althoughthegeneralprocess of how a tourist destinationevolves is still poorly understood a number of factors and stagesof developmentingar recognised (Wall 1982).preferences and needs of visitors,host populations,the change(orThese include chang-changing attitudes amongevendisappearance)oftheoriginal natural and cultural attractions and changes in physicallayout.These themes are briefly reviewed in this section.Althoughsomeconsistencyisseentourist destinations it is emphasised bythatnot all areasothers.ex olution ofallwritersthe described stages as clearly asSpecific destinations are influenced as well as the characteristics of their natural andsocial resources systems.integratedinBecause few writers have considered anmodel of tourism development and much of the researchreported here is very recent, little attention has yet been givenr14

to the most beneficial stage of development or of howtoassessor modify various stages.Butler(1980)has attempted to provide an integrated modeldepicting the evolution of a tourist area.togetheranumberofproduct-cycle concept.theabovethemesItandseekstodrawis based on theThis cycle follows the premise of productsales proceeding slowly at first,then experiencing a rapid rateofdecline.growth,stabilityandslowIn other words an Sshaped (asymmetric) curve (Figure 3) is followed.A TOURISM AREA CYCLE OF EVOLUTIONR juvipn.11iu11/ J\,,/'CiUJICAL RANGE OfElEMEHIS Of Cll'AClllCon1oli l;1cionr-------,.llr-- -sc . . gnacion .:::----\ ""-::::.----- C-------\"- .- - o dinr \\.\.\E'-olnvolvr111t·111F1cuRr. I. Hypolhctical cvulu1iu11 of a louri'I area.i ff"'·""".' ,., lf;:.\.I .'-::}In Butler's terms a resort area passes through a sequence ofchanges which he has ange to the physical or social environments.15oriented"and limited

2.Involvementnu bersIncreasingof visitor facilities.Some locals beginto cater specifically for tourisls.3.DevelopmentThe evolution of a well defined tourist market area.associatedgrowthWithin visitor numbers comes larger and moreelaborate facilities.Butlernotes"asthisstageprogresses local involvement and control of development willdecline rapidly (1980:8).Thefollowingtwostages suggest that the type of touristattracted changes as a wider market is drawn.4.ConsolidationThe rate of increase in visitor numbers beginsalthough absolute numbers continue to increase.ditions are made to the infrastructure.thetodecline,Few new ad-Butler reports thatnumber of visitors and the facilities provided for them"can be expected to arouse some opposition andtentamongpermanent residents"(1980:8)discon-particularlythose not directly involved in the tourism industry.5.Stagnation PhaseThis stage l,numbersurplus capacity is available and thesocialandof visitors decline,resortslowlylosesits fashionable status.6.Dec 1 i n e IR e ·j u v e n ta t i onAfterstagnationadestination may decline further or in-novations may be sought.adequacyo[Key factors suggested here are thethe protection of resources,the ability to re-place absolete plant, and/or develop secondary attractions.16

[l111JJ11r 1:;Butler'sthis paper;"atho s ei:'who a rtourist:ar.c- as.c I v11 1lJ , .To1iri ;I.oft he.i;1 I: t; I !.: 11c1 e :l.;I)those ci.l:ed elsewhere inr 0 '.! 11 i r e clp J. a n n i. 1JI J ,[ or;1l.!.r. 1cl:.ionr;;u· cl e v ri 1 op i. 11 g11nLr: i n iTl1c·y c:c11lld thenIi' i11f:J11jl:el: e.'.1 :3par tl: Ii c:o 11o f.ndrna 11 a g i n J;111 ]l:ime1f!:";! .-:ipos s i b l yn o n --n1orc carefully protected(J.930:11).'s H1cHlr l:;11 1 .J .ir :;l:: t o u r i s t :::; y:. l e m .the hos t in g pop u l2.1rsi.rnllar;11111renewable r.esources.Hnl:J.( l'.nr er; p u t 1:; i l.i l r but should be vieweiland preserved"; u:e;1l i. o !lt:nnl:i 11111. u:.: c:Ji;111 J sT Ii e :-; e ·" r e v i. :-; i l o i:;!com 1011 nl i 11 al]l: a s t e s ,pe r ce pt i onso .Et o I II r: phys i ca 1. ::; c t l: i 11 g .11 l c: It 1 WJ 5Visitor TastesCycles of development have been li:.·sc:riued as theyapplytothe tastes and perceptions of visitors.Smithof(1977)t our l s m, c 1 as slocal no:rmscreaseandihr 1in ln!;r.o ]uclngf i e 1.1 !: o 1.11: l(custom ;).l\t :3l: 3,J c .d.uclies1.: n u li 119on tile c:rntlnopolor:1yt n l he i r adapt a t l on st:ou:rism changes in scale,nurnbP.rs in--the t:ype 0 tourist att:J:.:wl:ecJ becomes lessand therefore more 'obvious'l:o loc;ll residents17l: uauaptabl( (TabJe 1).

Table 1Freguence of types of tn1uisl:s c:1no l.:li0Lt.:.--2dapl:r:il:ions.to local norm::;Tourist typesNumlY rs1\rlaptal:ion::; to local normso[t:o111: l.stsExplorerVery J imi l:edi\ccepls fullyEliteRarely seenl\1JaptsOff-beatU11co111rno11 bu l:seP.ni ul lyAllapts wellJ.r,(];1 p Lss omewila t:UnusualOL'CilSIncipient massSteady f J.owSP.eks Western amenitiesMassConli11uo11s flowExpects Western amenitiesCharterMassive arrivalsD m.:i.ndsOlli1Western amenitiesSmith, V (1977), Fi9ure 1, p.9Source:Her classification of tourist types was built on the earlierwork of Cohen (1972) who had used factors such as theinstitutionalisationto construct atourisminterest:111plorers to individual;ibasistype.(1973)evolutionar.yscheme. lesl.ination evolves from drifters to ex--rn;J sg a ins in sop h is t l c i:l l: j o 11p J. O Jtnorganis1 dmassastheindustry i'll inli;irlprevlou jly(motivational 11i: L O::.d.tir.in)for lcvelope l J psychologicalan d.ysi.nqcl10.119es ln touristHis su9geslion w;1'.; Lhc:1t: r:escnb; rJl:tr.ac:t visil:orstinuum fromof(industry support) developed for travellers :;l:epfourdegreealloc1. 11l:r.i 1::·;l:nudd'Allocentr. ics'c1 11tricsl:o011a con-psycltoce11t:rics.meeting people fromother cultures and ac:tivit:ies while 'psychocentrics'preferfamiliar destJn;il:jon ·. ;11irl -.rl:t:i.ngs ;n1 l Ji;1ve low .1c:l:ivity Jevels.UJ

Whatevertheterminology the suggestion of these models isone of an evolution in which increasingwiththemvisitornumbers,bringchanges in orientation such as decreasing willingnessto adapt to local custom.Thus visitors become more obvioustolocals for reasons otJier than increases in numbers alone.InmorerecentworkCohen has focussed both on differentmodels or styles of tourist behaviou:i:(Cohen 1974) and the mannerin which they perceive the host's presentation. of theirThismodel (Cohen 1979)Firstly,,orproduct.is organised according to two variables.the tourist's impression of the scene or event as 'realstaged'and secondly the nature of the scene from the host'sperspective: real or staged.This 2 x2classificationgivesrise to four possible tourist-environment experiences:* authentic: events that are recognised and correctlyperceived by tourists as authentic.*-staged authenticity: tourist questioning ofauthenticity when,in fact,it is real.* denial of authenticity: tourist failure torecognise a contrived space.*contrived: tourist recognition of the created,manufactured environment: (Cohen 1979: 27-28).Inonly two of these outcomes (authentic and contrived) arethe expectations met for both hosts and guests.sureoftime all options,Under the pres-but particularly staged or denial ofauthenticity, present many opportunities for misunderstanding between the parties.19

When these scenarios are set against adimension - tourists' desire for,furtherinsightsintofurtherover-ridingor indifference to authenticitytouristsatisfaction and impacts aregained.However, the important point of this section is that tourismdevelopment is not a linear process.Cohen'sThe implied suggestionoflatest work is that tourist destinati"ons attract certainstyles of tourists according to the type of en ironments created.Thus to some extent they may give shape to their own destiny.2.2Host PerceptionsSimilar studies to those discussed above have ks have emerged which appear to be widelymadetour is ts.applicableofTwotosocial impact research.Doxey(1976) has suggested a framework according to varyingHe argues that the level of ir-degrees of resident irritation.ritationarisingfromcontactsbetween the hosts and touristswill be determined by the mutual compatibility of each,assumptionthat with seemingly compatible groups,may ultimately generate tensions.sheer numbersDestination areas will there-fore successively pass through five stages of irritation.*Euphoria- hosts enthusiastic and thrilled bytourist development*Apathy- tourists seen as a source of profit,individuality is lost20with the

*residents voice misgivings about theAnnoyancetourist industry while policy makerssee solutions in increasing infrastructure.*Antagonism -irritations become transferred to tourists.through speech and behaviour:.*- residents learn to live wLth the factThe finalleveltheir lifestyles and environment areirreversibly changed.WhileDoxeyargueschanges through time,thethatresidentresponsepredictablythe value system of the destination isbase of his framework.atThus any attempts to measure socialimpacts must firstly be community based.In contrast with Doxey's work, which describes the dominant,prevailing attitude at a community level Butler(1974)[drawingon Bjorklund and Philbricks (1972) work on cultural interactionJ;clarify differing attitudes among individuals.Hesuggests residents might be classified on the basis of theirat-attemptstotitudesandbehaviour,according to their disposition for,against,further tourism development.(Arrows lndicala posslblily of chnnoe)Ac ion and supportof tourist activityFAVOURABLE:Slight acceptance ofand support fortourist activity50 "'.i::."'CJOi,/'"O .,2:.jQUNFAVOURABLE:Aggressiveopposition totourist activityUNFAVOURABLE:Silent acceptancebul opposition totourist activityz"'Fig. 9 llo t at1i1udi11al/bd1avioural re pnmr. lo touri.r activity (Sauret: After fljorkhind and Philbrick 1972: B. Found in Butler 1974: 12)}). Ior:

Butler's framework has the advantage that. it recognises thatdifferent attitudeswithinthesamemaybecommu1ii ty,heldtowardtourismat one time.development,This suggestion hasfound support in more recent research work (Brougham1981).andButler:Pizam (1978).and Thomason et nl (1979) developed attitudeindices on a range of issues relating to tour:ism development, andrecordedamorefavourableassessment from entrepreneurs con-nected with tourist activity comparedReactions,areresidentreactions.it seems are also likely to vary according to the na-ture of the issue.theywithIf community attitudes are widelydiffereritlikely to lead to tensions and political pressures be-tween different resident groups,Mathieson and Wallalthoughitlssuggestedby(1982:139) that the majority of the populationwill accept or react passively to tourism.ThusButler'sdynamic interplay of attitude and behaviour,combined with Doxey's more general community analysis,thereinforcesuggestions in this paper of the need to provide a communitycommunication system wh

The sec o n d ma j u r f o cu :3 i s o n fa c lo r s th a t co 11 ti: i but e t o socio-cultural impacts. A central theme here is that impact ·studies merely assist us in deter:minin· how well we ar:e rneetin :J oUJ: objectives. It is also argued that because the tourism